What is qualitative

It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection e.

This process continues until no new relevant information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant — which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ].

In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ]. This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. Other types of purposive sampling include but are not limited to maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ].

In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list or tree , and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team.

This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data. Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ].

For example, interviewees can be provided with summaries of their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ].

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants i. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and future patients alike [ 34 , 35 ].

In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself. The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies — in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process. For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i. While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement.

Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis.

This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e. Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand.

Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se — unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research.

In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component. The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table 1. We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using only quantitative designs.

It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Philipsen, H. Kwalitatief onderzoek: nuttig, onmisbaar en uitdagend. TCo Eds. In: Qualitative research: Practical methods for medical practice pp. Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum. Chapter Google Scholar. Punch, K. Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage.

Kelly, J. Travelling to the city for hospital care: Access factors in country aboriginal patient journeys. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 22 3 , — Article Google Scholar. Nilsen, P. Never the twain shall meet? Implementation Science, 8 1 , 1— Oxford Center for Evidence Based Medicine. Eakin, J. Educating critical qualitative health researchers in the land of the randomized controlled trial. Qualitative Inquiry, 22 2 , — May, A.

Alternatieven voor RCT bij de evaluatie van effectiviteit van interventies!? In Alternatives for RCTs in the evaluation of effectiveness of interventions!? Final report. Google Scholar. Berwick, D. The science of improvement. Journal of the American Medical Association, 10 , — Christ, T. Alternative paradigms and mixed methodologies.

Qualitative Inquiry, 20 1 , 72— Lamont, T. New approaches to evaluating complex health and care systems. BMJ, i Drabble, S. Johnson Eds. London: Oxford University Press. Chambers, D. The dynamic sustainability framework: Addressing the paradox of sustainment amid ongoing change.

Implementation Science : IS, 8 , Hak, T. Waarnemingsmethoden in kwalitatief onderzoek. Russell, C. Evaluation of qualitative research studies. Evidence Based Nursing, 6 2 , 36— Fossey, E. Understanding and evaluating qualitative research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36 , — Yanow, D. Conducting interpretive policy analysis Vol. Shenton, A. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22 , 63— Participeren in ziekte en zorg: meer over kwalitatief onderzoek.

Huisarts en Wetenschap, 49 4 , — Hijmans, E. Het halfopen interview als onderzoeksmethode. Jansen, H. Systematiek en toepassing van de kwalitatieve survey. Pv, R. Carter, N. The use of triangulation in qualitative research. Oncology Nursing Forum, 41 5 , — Boeije H: Analyseren in kwalitatief onderzoek: Denken en doen, [Analysis in qualitative research: Thinking and doing] vol. Den Haag Boom Lemma uitgevers; Hunter, A. Designing Multimethod Research.

Archibald, M. Share on linkedin. Qualitative Research Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. Quantitative Research Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. Research Software Snap Survey Software is the ideal survey platform and online research software where structured techniques such as large numbers of respondents and descriptive findings are required.

Would you like to take part in surveys and be paid for your time? Related topics. You might also be interested in:. Tip: Use the survey link to seed data into your survey. We use cookies to improve your experience on our website and to show you personalised content. You can allow all cookies or manage them using the settings below. Cookie Box Settings.

Cookie settings You can decide which cookies you wish to allow and can change your settings at any time. You cannot prevent our use of strictly necessary cookies.

For more information about the cookies we use, please see our cookie policy. The data may be in the form of descriptive words that can be examined for patterns or meaning, sometimes through the use of coding. Coding allows the researcher to categorize qualitative data to identify themes that correspond with the research questions and to perform quantitative analysis.

Research topics may be approached using either quantitative or qualitative methods. Choosing one method or the other depends on what you believe would provide the best evidence for your research objectives. Researchers sometimes choose to incorporate both qualitative and quantitative data in their research since these methods provide different perspectives on the topic. Example : You want to know the locations of the most popular study spaces on Macalester's campus, and why they are so popular.

To identify the most popular spaces, you might count the number of students studying in different locations at regular time intervals over a period of days or weeks. This quantitative data would answer the question of how many people study at different locations on campus. To understand why certain locations are more popular than others, you might use a survey to ask students why they prefer these locations. This is qualitative data.